AP EUROPEAN HISTORY REVIEW
Disclaimer: This document is a review and does not cover all of the material, though it does include a wealth of details. It is based strictly off of Cliffnotes and excludes certain aspects of the course such as an emphasis on women and Italian city-states etc. The study guides covers from the Renaissance up to and including Imperialism for now; more material will be added in the near future. This document should be used as a supplement and not as a sole means of preparing for the examination. If you have any questions or comments, feel free to contact me. Good luck – Aaron Z
Renaissance (1350-1550): (culture rebirth)
- French for rebirth
- Characterized and embodied by secularism, individualism, and humanism
Comparison to Middle Ages:
| | Middle Ages/Medieval | Renaissance |
| Purpose of Art: | Glorify God | Glorify individual |
| Politics: | Local/feudal lords | Kings in England, France, +Spain centralized power |
| Society: | Church as center | Secular/material world grows more significant along with Church |
| Religion: | Focus of one’s life | Important but not most dominant |
| Education: | Church promoted it to prepare for religious life | Stressed teaching of history, arts, ethics, classical texts and public speaking |
Italian Renaissance:
- center of Roman history + culture (Florence specifically)
- city-states were centers of banking, trade, and manufacturing
- merchants used wealth as stepping stones to political leadership
Florence:
Medici family was a merchant family who amassed money and led Europe behind the scenes; they produced great leaders like popes and kings…
Cosimo de’ Medici (1389-1464) took control of the Florentine gov. Ruled for 30 years as a dictator and championed popular causes.
Lorenzo, his grandson, was a patron of the arts who ruled behind the scenes…supported Michelangelo and Botticelli
Giovanni, Lorenzo’s son, became pope and was a patron of Raphael…promoted St. Peter’s Church rebuilding in Rome.
Humanism: focusing on individual + education – “man is the measure of all things”
- humanists improved education; they studied grammar, poetry, history, and Greek + Latin texts
- vernacular, everyday languages, arose
Humanists:
Giovanni Pico della Mirandola – wrote On the Dignity of Man, expressing man was limitless
Francesco Petrarch – “father of Humanism” – collected old manuscripts + publicized them for Western Europe; his sonnets inspired fellow writers
Leonardo Bruni – chancellor of Florence 1427-44 – wrote bio of Cicero, encouraged people to become active politically and culturally, and wrote 12 volume work: History of Florentine Peoples
Boccaccio – wrote The Decameron – short stories and best prose of the Ren.
Castiglione – wrote The Courtier – taught proper etiquette of man
Women in Humanism:
- some women were more educated in the Renaissance
- Laura Cereta represented female humanism; she studied languages, philosophy etc., chose marriage over studying, was widowed then studied again.
(Women’s education prepared them for domestic life…most women did not gain any rights or experience impacts from Renaissance)
Printing Press: movable type popularized by Johannes Gutenberg…Gutenberg Bible printed à people could study religion independently now…knowledge spread.
Northern Renaissance:
- more religiously based, but religiously diversified
- Christian humanists combined Renaissance ideals with Christian teachings
Thomas Moore - Englishman royalist who wrote Utopia, stating that a perfect world can be created by man…and that private property = corruption. (spurred Utopian Socialism) à he was beheaded by Henry VIII for not supporting his break from the Catholic church.
Erasmus – wrote In Praise of Folly à promoted simple Christian piety + satirized ignorance and corruption of the Catholic Church
Rabelais – French – wrote romances Gargantua and Pantagruel; he promoted education, politics, and philosophy
Montaigne – French – invented the essay and urged people to reject superstition
Italian Politics:
Niccolo Machiavelli – wrote The Prince which served as a guide for rulers namely absolutists. “Ends justify the means”, “be loved or feared but never hated”,; he did not care about morals…Louis XI, Henry VII, Henry VIII,+ Ferdinand/Isabella listened…his hatred for city states + democracy stemmed from expulsion from power.
Jean Bodin’s The Six Books on the State established concept of absolutism
France’s Politics:
Hundred Years’ War destroyed France à commerce revived it and middle class rose…more power for king also. Louis XI is architect of French absolutism
England’s: Henry VI (Tudor) established power over nobles and unchecked Start Chamber for punishing
Spain:
Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of Castille and united Christian kingdom of Spain: they used hermandades, local police force, to enforce rule, initiated inquisition and expelled many Jews, including conversos – Jews who converted
Art of the Renaissance:
Characteristics:
- imitates classical Greek/Roman and rejects medieval art styles
- used 3D perspective and focused on being realistic
- portrays secularity + glorifies individual including grace and beauty of man
Artists:
Giotto – realistic artist: Preaching to the Birds, St. Francis
Lorenzo Ghiberti – made bronze doors of Baptistery in Florence à depicts realistic scenes from the Bible
Donatello – Florentine artist who sculpted David
Leonardo da Vinci – “Renaissance Man” – The Last Supper + Mona Lisa
Michelangelo – sculpted 14 ft David model and painted Sistine Chapel
Raphael – School of Athens à realistic portrayal of Aristotle and Plato…relig themes
Protestant Reformation (1517 -1640):
Protestants – protested against abuses of Roman Catholic Church à religious unity in Europe now destroyed
Causes:
religiously:
-simony: officials sold positions /used for selfish purposes
-immorality: leaders neglected rules of celibacy and religious duties
-nepotism: church officials appointed relatives
-indulgences: church “sold” forgiveness (prompted Luther’s 95 Theses)
-clerical ignorance: Church recruited worthless priests b/c many had died
-Great Schism: people were skeptical after many popes claimed authority; concerned about Church’s legitimacy
Political:
Clergy was involved in state affairs and secular leaders resented their wealth and power; pope was considered foreign leader
Economic:
Rising middle class resented church taxes; kings wanted church land
Intellectual:
Renaissance ideas caused people to question church authority and humanists attacked the church
Martin Luther:
- German Augustinian, friar and theologian who studied at University of Wittenberg and studied law
- After thunderstorm he dedicated life to monastery
- He was spiritually troubled…indulgences bothered him (Pope Leo X authorized Johannes Tetzel to sell indulgences to build cathedral at St. Peter’s Church + repay Fuggers – bankers)
- Luther wrote 95 theses w/ basic tenets of Lutheranism:
1. Salvation thru faith alone (not with good works)
2. Religious authority rested in the Bible not church
3. Church consisted of entire Christian community
4. All work is sacred and each person should serve god individually
5. Marriage of clergy is permitted
6. Only baptism, communion, and penance were true sacraments
7. Secular rulers were supreme authority except for theological matters
1520 – Leo X issued a papal bull demanding Luther recant views; Luther burned it
-at Diet of Worms, HRE Charles V excommunicated Luther but Luther was protected by Frederick the Wise of Saxony
Luther translated Bible into German à his religion spread
1529 – Diet of Speyser – Charles V enforced his rulings against Luther
Peasants followed Luther because he was a source of support during their economic hardship. They got excited and then revolted…but Luther feared the revolts and ordered the nobility to put them down à 100,000 died...he lost many followers
Luther also rejected Anabaptists and Anti-Trinitarians
Zwingli:
- introduced reform in Switzerland; he protested everything not found in the Scriptures
- he disagreed with Luther by denying all sacraments and insisting that the Eucharist was only symbolic
- he set up a theocracy (religious leaders have authority)
- he died in civil war
- the peace treaty allowed each canton (province) to choose its own religion, which was a model for Peace of Aubsburg
Calvin:
- influenced by Luther
- wrote The Institutes of Christian Religion
factors that distinguished him from Luther:
- predestination: god had predetermined our salvation/damnation…those destined for salvation showed themselves thru morality and wealth
- Predestination and the Protestant worth ethic justified capitalism.
- Calvinism permitted charging interest à support for capitalism
- Calvin also believed in unity of church and state: unlike Luther, he believed that moral/religious authority should also rule state
- He was very strict; he closed down taverns and outlawed amusement like card playing àpeasants saw strict life style as comforting guide
John Knox spread Calvinism in Scotland (Presbyterianism)
English Calvinists are called Puritans, and French are called Huguenots
English Reformation:
Henry VIII led the English Reformation: he couldn’t divorce Catherine of Aragon so he broke from the church to marry Anne Bolyn
- he used Parliament to break from Church
- Archbishop of Canterbury let him marry Anne Bolyn
- he passed Act of Supremacy, which placed the king of England as leader of the Church
- Wives and children of Henry VIII:
Catherine of Aragon à Bloody Mary – killed Protestants (Catholic)
Anne Bolyn à Elizabeth I – politique…pleased both religions
Jane Seymour à Edward VI – introduced Calvinism
Spain: Philip II, a devout Catholic, ruthlessly tried to restore Catholicism; he established the Spanish Armada against England, but England won
Catholic/Counter Reformation:
- Index of Prohibited Books: Catholic list that forbade Erasmus etc
Council of Trent: reevaluation of the Catholic Church
- salvation from both faith and good works
- people need Church to understand Bible
- reaffirmation of Seven Sacraments, celibacy, and monastic life
- condemnation of things like nepotism and simony within Church
- mandatory education of the clergy
- more religious art
Jesuits, under Loyola, were spiritual soldiers:
- were advisors to the king
- educated youth
- extended Catholicism to the Americas
- used Inquisition to reassure Catholic dominance
Impacts on the Church because of the Protestant Reformation:
- religious unity was destroyed
- Northern Europe was Protestant and Southern Europe was Catholic
- Secular authority grew over Church authority à nationalism
- Individual Bible reading/Protestantism led to capitalism (says Max Weber)
- Wars of religion occurred as a result in the 16th and 17th centuries
1531 – League of Schmalkaden – a group of Protestant rulers banded together to defend against Charles V, the HRE. After two decades of warfare, Charles V reluctantly accepted the Peace of Aubsburg (1555) – which allowed every Provincial ruler to choose between Lutheranism or Catholicism
Philip II was a very devout Catholic:
- he wanted to tighten control over the Netherlands and enforce Catholicism
- sent the Duke of Alva w/ 20,000 soldiers to deal with rebellions
- Duke established the Council of Troubles and executed 18,000 people
- In 1581, under William of Orange, Dutch declared religious and political independence
- northern Provinces gained freedom as Protestants in 1681
Civil War in France:
- Francis I signed the Concordat of Bologna, which recognized the supremacy of the church (he was allowed to appoint bishops in return)
- Catholicism proclaimed official religion
- Huguenots wanted Calvinism
- 9 civil wars erupt between 1562 – 1589 + in 1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre occurred – over 20,000 Huguenots died
1589 – Henry of Navarre, Henry IV, a Calvinist Bourbon, came to power
-he was a politique à “Paris is worth a Mass”
-issued the Edict of Nantes, granting Protestants toleration
Thirty Years’ War:
Thirty Years’ War occurs because Calvinists want more religious freedom…and they begin fighting with Catholics:
Bohemian Phase:
-Defenestration of Prague: Calvinists rebels throw two of the Emperor’s officials out a window à rebels defeated at Battle of White Mountain à Bohemia becomes Catholic by 1635
Danish Phase: King Christian IV of Denmark (Protestant) defends Protestants in Northern Germany à Danes defeated à Edict of Restitution: Calvinism outlawed and Lutherans required to return all Catholic property seized since 1552
Swedish Phase: Gustavus Adolphus, Swedish King (Protestant) helps Protestants. Using military genius, he aids them but dies in Battle of Luetzen (1632) and ends effectiveness of Swedish help…French support Swedes…Protestant comeback: Edict of Restitution revoked – South Germany is still Catholic…Richielu helps Sweden to destroy Hapsburg power
French Phase: France wants to destroy the Hapsburgs…the war is now more political than religious. (Proof: both France and Spain are Catholic!) Coalition of Catholic France + Protestant countries (Holland and Switzerland) fight Hapsburgs à Peace of Westphalia (1648):
- Peace of Aubsburg renewed and Calvinism recognized
- Edict of Restitution revoked
- HRE divided up into many small territories (300 princes) so no more power
- France and Sweden receive some HRE territory
- Switzerland and Holland become independent of Hapsburgs
- Papacy can’t be in German religious affairs; Church power reduced
Age of Exploration: “Glory, God, Gold”
- Henry the Navigator (Portugal) sent annual expeditions to the western coast of Africa, establishing trade
Portuguese explorers:
Bartholomew Diaz – first to sail around Cape of Good Hope in America (1488)
Vasco de Gama – discovered an all-water route to India and brought back Asian spices à $
Christopher Columbus – reached America in 1492 (obviously)
Magellan – first to circumnavigate the globe (his ships); he died in a tribal battle of the Philippine Islands and gave Spain a base to trade with China + spread Catholicism
Hernando Cortes – defeated the Aztec Empire
Pizarro – conquered the Incas and established control in western Latin America
- the Spanish used superior technology, enemies of their enemies, and also killed many Natives with disease
Results:
- influx of gold and silver à Spain’s growth as a major power in 1500s
- new foods like potatoes and tomatoes were introduced
- slave trade arose
- diseases killed 80% of Native Americans
Absolutism:
Absolutists:
Henry IV (1589-1610) – Duke of Sully, his prime minister, improved the economy: new tax system and new roads and bridges. He limited nobles by regional parliaments. Henry instituted the Edict of Nantes, granting Calvinist rights
Louis XIII (1610-1643) – he exiled his mom b/c she didn’t’ support Richelieu: Richelieu crushed political power of Huguenots: when they rebelled, he laid a siege around La Rochelle, resulting in Peace of Alais, which made them lose their territorial rights, military, and cities – they kept religion. He also destroyed nobles’ castles and used a spy system to root out dissidents. He used the intendant system to locally supervise thru royal officials, which limited nobles further. He also levied taxes without Parliament’s consent.
Louis XIV (1643-1715):
Mazarin was prime minister when he was 4 and enthroned. The Fronde, composed of the nobility and the middle class, started a civil war, stormed into his palace, and scared him…this led him to be very absolutist. He adopted the Divine Right of Kings, meaning that he was chosen by G-d and therefore invested with total power. Colbert, his financial advisor, used mercantalism to improve the economy. He also revoked the Edict of Nantes, taking away Calvinist rights. He had a huge state army. Wars: War of Devolution, Second Dutch war, War of the League of Aubsburg, War of the Spanish Succession à Louis overstepped his abilities in an effort to take Spain…signed Peace of Utrecht, which established that France and Spain could not be ruled by same monarch. This war hindered France (bankrupt)
- Louis XIV ruled during the “Golden Age of France”
- He was the “Sun King” and glorified himself as this thru art and plays
- He built the Palace of Versailles, forced nobles to live there, and limited their power by creating court rituals and making them dependent upon him
England and Constitutionalism:
- Henry VII started Tudor dynasty in 1485…his son, Henry VIII + Elizabeth were politiques and successful by appealing to the public; they provided law and order and encouraged trade.
- When Elizabeth died childless, the Stuart dynasty began in 1603:
- James I fought with Parliament because he wanted more $, but they wouldn’t grant him anything.
- Puritans, English Calvinists, did not like James; they asked for religious reform à said no
- Hampton Court Conference was to examine versions of the Bible
- James, like his son Charles, ruled by divine right
- Charles also fought with Parliament; he wanted more $ for the military against Spain à they wouldn’t grant it to him unless he signed the Petition of Rights:
-Charles can’t levy taxes without consent of Parliament
-he can’t proclaim martial law in peacetime
- cannot imprison anyone without charge or claim
- cannot quarter troops in civilians’ homes without their consent
- Charles signed it and then ruled without Parliament for 11 years
Charles then imposed Anglican practices on Scotland; when they rebelled, he called on Parliament to raise money for war….called Short Parliament, only lasting 3 weeks. Scots won and demanded $, so he called on Parliament.
Now Long Parliament:
-lasted 20 years and limited king’s power – Parliament had to be called every 3 years + king could not dissolve it
-Grand Remonstrance was a list of 204 grievances of Parliament…when James arrested 5 members for treason, Parliament wouldn’t give them over
à English Civil War (1642):
- Cavaliers/Royalists vs. Roundheads (Parliament’s army of Independents)
- Roundheads led by Cromwell who win; he takes over in 1646…period called Interregnum
- Parliament was composed of Independents, who controlled the army and wanted religious tolerance, and the Presbyterians, who wanted a constitutional monarchy under a Church
- In 1648, a Rump Parliament removed Presbyterian members and left 70 more Independents
- 1649 – Charles beheaded
- Rump Parliament abolished monarchy + created Commonwealth = Republic
- 1653 – Cromwell expelled Rump Parliament and took title of Lord Protectorate, establishing dictatorship. He suppressed Irish and Scottish rebellion, advanced trade, and increased England’s power. People resented his strict rule. When he died they invited Charles II to come back…son of Charles I
- Charles II agreed with Catholic France that England would become Catholic. As a result, Parliament passed the Test Act in 1673, which excluded Catholics from Public Office and passed the Exclusion Bill to exclude James II from being the next king (which failed)
- Parliament was composed of two groups: Whigs and Tories
- Whigs – wanted constitutional monarchy under Protestant king (liberal) (Whigs passed Habeas Corpus Act – fair trial)
- Tories – supported the king but feared Catholicism (conservative)
1685 – After Charles, James II came to the throne; he made pro-Catholic decisions, which worried Parliament. They invited William of Orange and his wife Mary to their rulers under a constitutional monarchy:
1689 – Glorious Revolution: they accepted the Declaration of Rights, which turned into the Bill of Rights:
- ended the divine right theory in England
- reestablished Parliament over the monarch
- king could not levy taxes, make laws, or have army without Parliament’s :D
- people got civil rights: freedom of speech, right to petition, protection against outlandish punishment
- English rulers had to be Anglican
Golden Age of Spain + Decline:
- Charles V was Spanish king and HRE (son of Isabella and Ferdinand)
- Philip II was son of Charles V; his Spanish Armada failed against England + Protestantism prevailed
- Spain lost territories and kings would not make reforms…no longer great
- Miguel de Cervantes’s Don Quixote describes Spain in 16th century…Quixote = idealistic but impractical, which describes Spain in the 17th century
Scientific Revolution:
Previously, science was limited by religion…new discoveries changed the way people viewed the world. Religion was diminished and reason was promoted:
- Copernicus banished Aristotle’s ideas
- Copernicus’s On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres introduced heliocentricism – that the planets orbit around the sun; this destroyed the religious belief that the Earth was the center in crystalline spheres – Luther criticized him
Tycho Brahe – A Danish astronomer who collected data about planetary location and gave info necessary for following people to make discoveries
Johannes Kepler – German astronomer and Brahe’s assistant. He used data to introduce the theory that the planets orbit elliptically (proved heliocentric view)
Galileo Galilei – Florentianian – established experimentation thru observation and invented telescope – challenged bible’s crystalline sphere view and changed view of how to approach things. He was imprisoned and ordered to recant his views after he publicized Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems
Sir Issac Newton – combined ideals of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galielo into system of mathematical laws that explained planets’ orbiting etc.
- founded universal law of gravitation
- he was religious, but his ideas created religious skepticism because it showed that religion was not the only way to interpret world
- established basic laws of physics (first “absurd” but now accepted)
Francis Bacon – he was an English politician and writer à knowledge thru inductive reasoning and process called empiricism à started scientific method
Rene Descartes – he relied on date and said it was the only way to draw conclusions, “I think therefore I am” – only his existence was unequivocal…everything else needed data. He promoted logic and was a great mathematician
Consequences of the Scientific Revolution:
- community emerged that was eager to expand knowledge
- human reason emerged as important over religious texts
- led to the Enlightenment
Enlightenment:
- based on reason, human ability, and intellectualism
- movement was very secular
- man was viewed as supreme and being capable of greatness
Thomas Hobbes - English – fled London during the English civil war…feared for his life. He wrote Leviathan, which stated that humans were inherently bad. Man needed an absolute ruler to guide them. In a “social contract” man sacrificed his rights to the ruler for organization and the greater good. Man could not rebel.
John Locke – wrote Two Treatises on Government, which defended the Glorious Revolution and supported constitutional monarchy. Man was inherently good and deserved rights of property, life, and liberty. The contract with the government protected these rights. If the government denied these rights, man should rebel. “Social Contract”
Enlightenment was most popular in France because:
- French was the international language of the educated class
- France was the cultural center of Europe
The Enlightenment featured salons in which women often led groups of thinkers and intellectuals who gathered to discuss philosophical issues. Madame Geoffrin was famous for her salon and met with some of the greatest thinkers of her time.
Philosophes: (public intellectuals)
Baron Montesquieu (1689 -1755) – In his Spirit of the Laws, he urged that executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government should separate power. Stressed the importance of checks and balances. He stressed freedom and hated absolutism…encouraged a balance of power.
Voltaire (1694-1778):
- Diest
- Urged religious freedom but thought religion crushed human spirit
- His Candide demoted organized religion and his Treatise on Toleration argued religious tolerance
- He promoted freedom for all
- In 1743 he lived in the court of Frederick the Great of Prussia and then supported Enlightened Despotism
Jean Jacques Rousseau:
- based on emotion not reason like most other philosophes
- had similar ideas to Locke: man was born good and needed protection from the evils of civilization – “Man is born free; yet everywhere he is in chains”
- he inspired the Romantic movement
- in his Social Contract, wrote that men should sacrifice individual rights to each other for sake of the community in order to be free (thru gov)
- supporter of democracy
- his Emile argued that education with reason was bad and focused on good treatment of children
Denis Diderot – he led the creation of Encyclopedia, books of political and social critiques. It attacked abuses of French governemtn and religious intolerance. Exemplified systematic organization and was supposed to promote rationality and critical thinking.
Physiocrats: (economic thinkers of Enlightenment)
- close to government
- rational
Adam Smith (1727-1790) In his Wealth of Nations, he argues against mercantilism. He believed in laissez-faire gov meaning that the gov shouldn’t get involved in the economy and should only protect people. He promoted free trade and introduced capitalism; he believed that supply and demand would govern the economy
Francis Quesnay – French leader of the physiocrats who supported laissez-faire
Englightened Despotism: (rulers that justified absolutism thru good laws, promoting happiness and improving society. Made many reforms w/ edu + law etc)
Frederick the Great (1740-86) of Prussia:
- invited Voltaire to his court and took his advice about being an Enlightened ruler
- abolished torture
- improved education systems
- provided complete religious tolerance
- supported industry and commerce
- focused a lot on army – anti-Enlightenment
Peter the Great (1682 – 1725) of Russia: (not necessarily Enlightened)
- contemporary of Louis XIV
- he instituted Westernization and introduced people to science, education, military and industry
- ordered a modernized dress code
- took control of the Russian Byzantine Church
- new trade port connected Russia with Western Europe
Catherine the Great (1762-96) of Russia:
- read works of Voltaire and Montesquieu and westernized Russia
- revised and codified Russian law
- patronized the arts
- created hospitals and public welfare projects
- returned to being an autocrat after Pugachev serf uprising
Maria Theresa (1740-80) of Austria:
- created a national army
- limited Catholic Church
- revised tax system and bureaucracy
- reduced lord’s power over church
- improved educational system
Joseph II (1780-90) of Austria:
- furthered his mother’s tax reforms
- abolished serfdom
- following Physiocrats, he established a universal tax
- abolished capital punishment and reformed judicial system
- educational reforms
- hospitals
- religiously tolerant
- his brother Leopald II revoked these reforms because of revolts after
French Revolution: “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”
Old Regime:
1st Estate – clergy (1%)
2nd Estate – nobility (2%)
3rd Estate – peasants (97%) – had to pay most taxes and had very little voting power because they voted by order not head…they had to pay tithe (church tax), taille (farm tax), capitation (poll tax) a salt tax, an income tax and more.
- weak financial status of France from tax evasion of the wealthy and warring against Britain in its battle with America contributed to revolution.
- Louis XVI needed more $, and when Parlement and Assembly of Notables would not help him with taxes, he called upon the Estates General.
- 1789 –Third Estate broke off and called itself the National Assembly; Louis XIV locked them out of voting room
- They took the Tennis Court Oath (vowing not to disband until a constitution was created)
The Moderate Stage: (1789 -1792)
- Paris mobs stormed the Bastille, a fortress that symbolized Old Regime
- Throughout the Great Fear , peasants rose up against nobles and opposed feudalism
- The National Assembly, calling itself the National Constituent Assembly, abolished feudalism and nobles were no longer exempt from taxes; all male citizens could hold offices, and voting was by capita not unit.(head not order)
August 26, 1789 - Declaration on Rights of man and Citizens:
- men are born free and equal before the law
- freedom of speech, religion, and rights before the law
- taxes were paid by ability to pay
- right to rule rested in general will of the people
October 1789 – 7000 women marched to Versailles demanding bread and forced Tuileries, the royal family to return to Paris
National Assembly addressed the following:
Religious:
- it abolished church tithes and granted religious freedom
- created Civil Constitution of the Clergy à church was independent of the pope and the clergy was government paid and elected by the people (the pope denounced this, and half of the clergy was against the Revolution)
- they seized Church property in exchange for $
Legislative:
- they created a new constitution, had a constitutional monarchy with a legislative assembly that passed laws, collected taxes, decided war issues; there were 83 local departments
- Mary Wollstonecraft believed that the Revolution was a time for women to demand equal rights
- Olympe de Gouges was disappointed that Declaration of…Citizen did not grant women’s rights….so she wrote Declaration of the Rights of Women and argued women’s equality. She was the mother of Mary Shelley (Romantic author of Frankenstein) and was executed by Robespierre for “opposing” Revolution
- In the Declaration of Pillnitz, Prussia and Austria vowed to protect the French monarchy à France declared war on them
Radical Stage: (1792 -95)
- During the war, Prussia and Austria issued the Brunswick Manifesto, which said they’d destroy Paris if the French king was harmed
- Georges Danton, Minister of Justice, led mob of sans-culottes; they killed 1000 people – nobles, clergy, and anyone against the Revolution.
- National Assembly turned into the National Convention:
- they proclaimed France a monarch-free Republic
- the members of the National Conventions were Jacobins; then there were Girondists vs Mountains.
- Girondists favored decentralization of power + feared power of sans-culottes; they liked voting rights based on property ownerships.
- Maximilien Robespierre led the Mountains; at first, he was “moral” and wanted Republic.
- When Louis XVI was put on trial, Girondists wanted to imprison and exile king, but the Mountains wanted to kill him.
- They killed him à Austria, Prussia, England, Spain, + Netherlands, formed First Coalition against France
- Jacobins formed Committee of Public Safety, a dictator-esque committee designed to protect the Revolution
- the French won over the First Coalition and the COPS instituted the Reign of Terror: (1793-94)
- sentenced all people of treason to death, killing over 40,000 people
- instituted price/wage controls, food rationing, monetary controls to prevent inflation, metric system, and censorship
-Robespierre declared a Republic of Virtue (1st Republic) against Christianity and de-Christianized France
Reactionary Stage: (1795-99)
Reign of Terror had gotten out of hand. When Robespierre executed Danton after he suggested to end it, the Convention decided to arrest Robespierre and execute him à Thermadorian Reaction:
- moderates take over the Convention and set up two bodies:
Council of Elders – 250 members over 40 years old
Council of 500 – lower house
- reversed the Reign of Terror and re-Christianized
1795 – Convention chose 5 people to form The Directory, which needed military support to put down a riot, so it called on the rising general, Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleonic Era (1799-1815):
- he grew has a popular military general and gained power
- 1799 – he overthrew the Directory by a coup d’etat (swift overthrow by force) and formed Consulate – made of 3 consul leaders
- made himself first Consul w/ all the power…then Consul for life..then Emperor – used plebiscite, yes or no vote for the people, to gain appeal
- he was popular because of his reforms:
-Concordat of 1801 – made peace with the Catholic Church: Catholicism was main religion, but there was religious toleration + Pope could remove bishops
Napoleonic Code (1804):
-emphasized revolutionary principles
-equal treatment before the law
-religious toleration for protestants and Jews
-abolishing serfdom and feudalism (but women lost rights)
-free public edu: he set up standard public schooling
-Legion of Honor: society of “nobles” based on merit
-Bank of France: he introduced new currency and taxing for all (pleased bourgeoisie)
Napoleon dominates Europe:
- After Napoleon got power, Russia, Austria, Prussia + Great Britain formed the Second Coalition
- 1799 – Napoleon fought against the Second Coalition; he was a military genius
- 1805: – Third Coalition (Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Great Britain) fought but Napoleon defeated all besides England
- He then abolished the HRE and established the Confederation of the Rhine à Germany went from 300 to 100 states.
- 1806 – he defeated the Prussians at Battle of Jena and Russians in 1807 at Battle of Friedland
- Treaty of Tilsit allied France with Russians against Great Britain
- By 1807, Napoleon had established a huge empire. When Napoleon overtook an area, he stripped nobles of their power and instituted his reforms
- Britain still remained strong at this point: ex: At the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 the British navy destroyed France’s
- Since Napoleon could not defeat Britain militarily, he tried to hinder them economically by issuing the Continental System:
- Stated that Europeans couldn’t import British goods, which failed because they needed British goods à led to nationalism (a cause of downfall)
- Another cause for Napoleon’s decline was the Peninsular War (1808-1814): Napoleon put his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne, which angered people à revolted, and Duke of Wellington led forces that drove the French out.
- Another cause was the Invasion of Russia (1812): after Alexander I withdrew from the Continental System, Napoleon invaded…Russian armies retreated and burned resources à when winter came, French forces ran out of supplies and froze to death. à Napoleon lost most of the army
(very interesting to note that this also occurred in WWII + Germany also couldn’t defeat the British navy in World Wars – Battle of Jutland (WWI), bombing Britain unsuccessfully (WWII) – makes great comparison for FRQ)
- 1813 – Russian, Prussian, and Austrian forces defeat Napoleon at Battle of Nations
- 1814 – Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to Elba, an island, and old rulers returned to power
- Napoleon then returns for 100 days but was defeated at Battle of Waterloo for good and exiled to St. Helena where he died in 1821
Congress of Vienna (1814-15):
- meeting set up to restore and rebalance Europe’s rulers and power
- Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria headed this Assembly; here are his and others goals :
| Diplomat | Country | Objectives |
| Prince Klemens von Mettternich | Austria | -to restore Europe as it had been before -conservative -despised democracy and nationalism |
| Lod Castlereagh | England | To ensure that France would not become a major power agian |
| Tsar Alexander I | Russia | To organize an alliance system of Christian monarchs to fight revolutions (Holy Alliance); also to become king of Poland |
| Perigord Talleyrand | France | To ensure that France would retain the rank of a major power |
| Karl von Hardenberg | Prussia | To recover territory lost to Napoleon and gain Saxony |
They balanced and maintained power by:
- adding Belgium and Holland to create kingdom of Netherlands, a much larger state north of France
- giving Prussia lands along the Rhine River
- enhancing Austrian influence over Germans thru German Confederation of 39 states w/ Austria as president
- allowing Austria to take control of the lands in Italy
The Principle of Legitimacy established old rulers in their places again:
- -Austria got Lombardy and Venetia
- Russia got Finland and Poland
- Prussia got Rhineland
Quadruple Alliance established to suppress revolutions and maintain balance: (Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain)
Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions:
Mercantilism:
- a nation’s wealth is measured by how much silver/gold it has (bullionism)
- a nation must export more than import
- colonies exist for the economic benefit of the mother country
- strict laws must regulate trade with colonies (colonies could only trade with mother country and no one else)
- government must tax imported goods (to help local stores)
- single national currency + selling monopolies
- promoting self-sufficiency
Establishment of colonies and trade with Asia/Africa and expansion of commercial revolution led to changes in Europe:
- more money for consumers led to inflation à $ less valuable
- new social class of merchants, bankers, and capitalists arose (middle class) that demanded more status over time
- capitalism arose, using money to make more money thru private investment (Dutch were the first capitalists)
- capitalism inspired the “domestic system” where weavers and crafters produced goods at home
- “joint-stock companies” came about as people invested portions of money for big projects like overseas ventures
Agricultural Revolution:
Before Revolution:
- farmers worked to make food for themselves and their landlords instead of profit
- relied on a few ancient tools
- continued the three-field system à only 1/3 of field was ideal
- didn’t involve fertilization, crop rotation, or animal breeding
Dutch led this revolution:
Englishmen and Americans made tools:
- Jethro Tull – seed drill: increased cultivation and food production
- Charles Townshend – crop rotation: conserved soil fertility and availed +land
- Robert Bakewell – scientific breeding of animals
- Charles Newbold – cast-iron plow: innovation of wooden one
- John Deere – self-cleaning steel plow – better than iron one
-Enclosure Acts led to larger-scale farming. In England, these acts stripped peasants of their fields; governments and aristocracy cultivated these lands more with more efficient production.
-Machines replaced farmers à urbanization b/c farmers went to cities looking for different jobs
- population rose from 120 million in 1700 to 190 million in early 1800s.
Reasons:
- more food so less famine
- more balanced diet, so better health and longer lives
- women were healthier and had stronger babies
- vaccines were developed against diseases like smallpox. Improved medical care further slowed deaths from diseases
Industrial Revolution (1750 -1830):
- shift from hand-made to factory made (domestic system to factory system)
Began in England because:
- England was rich in raw materials and natural resources used in factories
- Wealthy men had the capital to invest in machinery and factories
- Agricultural revolution left many workers looking for work
- Stable government promoted research and industrialization
- As an island, England was isolated in peacetime and free to develop
Inventions: (many English and one or two American)
- John Kay – Flying Shuttle: sped up weaving and increased production
- James Hargreaves – Spinning jenny: made it possible to spin several threads at once. Mechanized the spinning wheel
- Sir Richard Arkwright – Water Frame: water-powered spinning machine increased speed
- Samuel Crampton – Spinning Mule – combined spinning jenny + water frame
- Edmund Cartwright – Power loom: water powered loom à automatic spinning
- Eli Whitney – Cotton Gin: method that increased cotton supply for factories
- Steam power emerged: Thomas Newcomen – steam engine (used in mines)
- James Watt – improved Newcomen’s work (for transportation)
- George Stephenson – steam locomotive
- Industrial Revolution le to much $, but deplorable living conditions in England; the working class lived in crowded and unhealthy areas à disease
- it also changed family structure/roles + worked many hours
-Sadler Committee discovered children were maltreated and regulated hours and laws that children could work (parents wanted kids to work b/c they needed the $)
-Luddites opposed the Industrial Revolution and broke machines etc.
-Romantics also opposed it. They stressed emotion and used expression ot fight industrialization + express view that it was harmful to nature and humanity
-Classical School of Economics rejected mercantilism and promoted free trade:
-Adam Smith (see above) ((basis of capitalism during I.R)
- Thomas Malthus (1776-1834) – wrote Essay on the Principle of Population, stressing that poverty came from population growing faster than food supply. War, famine, and disease checked this imbalance. Therefore, smaller families and population was key to successful society
-David Ricardo (1772 – 1823) – wrote The Principles of Political Economy + Taxation and espoused the Iron Law of Wages: human wages varied: when wages were high, more kids à more labor à lower wages + higher unemployment. Like Malthus, he believed that small families were key; he opposed gov’s help for the poor b/c he thought it would create more overall suffering
Jeremy Benthem (1748-1832) – espoused utilitarianism: goal of society should be greatest happiness for greatest amount of people. The gov. can intervene if individual’s happiness harms the common good…retreat from laissez-faire.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) – wrote On Liberty and followed Benthem. He advocated the rights of workers, equal rights for women, and universal suffrage
Socialism: state ownership of the means of production and other large businesses w/ goods; for the welfare of all people – everything is shared.
-began in France and England in the early 1800s
-Utopian Socialists (early socialists with dream but no ideal plan):
Henri Comte de Saint Simon: A French socialist who advocated the end of private property
Robert Owen: English industrialist who created a model community in Scotland with reduced working hours, no child labor, and decent homes
Louis Blanc: He believed that everyone deserved jobs and that the government should provide national workshops (implemented during Revolution of 1848)
Karl Marx and Communism:
- wrote the Communist Manifesto with Fredrick Engels + Das Kapital, a book against capitalism
- thought that economics determined course of history
- thought that classes led to trouble and that capitalists abused and underpaid the proletariat, working class, which created a “surplus value” to make profit for them à class struggle
- as class distinctions continued, revolution would come…the proletariat would take over and create a classless society (first in industrial areas)
- atfer classless society arises, no more private property and everyone will receive based on what they need and everything will work out as “state withers away”
19th Century: Struggle for Democracy and Unification in Europe
-Metternich had created conservative, anti-democratic gov system in Europe; he opposed liberalism + nationalism and wanted traditional return to old class structure. Revolutions in the 20s, 30s, and in the year 1848 occurred, as the middle class wanted rights etc.
- he controlled the German Confederation and forced Carlsband Decrees, (1819) which banned freedom of speech and the press
- Britain enacted the Six Acts (1819) to control radical leaders
- France enacted the July Ordinances (1830) that forbade freedom of speech and limited # of voters
Revolutions in 1820s:
- In 1820-23, Revolutions in Spain, Sardinia, Portugal, and Greece occurred but the Quintuple Alliance (now including France joined in 1818) put them down
- Greeks fought for independence against Ottomans and were supported because Greeks were “good, Christian people”, and countries wanted to weaken the Ottoman Empire.
- Eugene Delacroix, a Romantic artist, painted The Massacre of Chios to glorify Greek struggle and get nationalist support
- Greeks won independence in 1829
Revolutions of 1830s:
- first in France then in Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Germany – “When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold”
- After Louis XVIII died, Charles X came to power and tried to reestablish absolutismà July Revolution à Charles X fled à Louis Philippe as king
Louis Philippe: (1830-48)
- he supported the French Revolution (changed French flag to revolution flag)
- he was called the citizen king because he dressed like his people and acted on their behalves
- increased the electorate to include the middle class, but favored the middle class at the expense of the workers
1831 – Belgium becomes independent
Revolutions of 1848:
France:
- Louis Philippe was opposed by Republicans:
- There were liberal Republicans, who wanted more voting rights and radicals who wanted to support the workers
- February Days: workers, students, radicals rioted à Louis Philippe abdicated
- New elections…middle class liberals led by Alphonse Lamartine had no sympathy for workers
- He removed Blanc’s national workshops for the poor, à June riots…but liberal government crushed the rebellion
- Second French Republic established; Louis Napoleon/Napoleon III elected as president b/c of his name and promise of liberal reforms
- He created a conservative gov and then w/ coup d’etat assumed dictatorial powers à turned it into Second Empire
- He also used plebiscite like his uncle
- Had secret police and limited press’s freedom (censorship)
- Public work projects like rebuilding roads, railroads etc. to enhance economy
- With Georges Haussmann, he transformed Paris into a modern city (sewage system)
- Also granted unions and right to strike (to gain support); his reign fell during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.
- 1871 – Paris Commune took over: made of rebels, workers, socialists, and republicans
- 1875 - another rebellion occurred and they were crushed à Third French Republic:
- it consisted of a Chamber of Deputies + Senate; no one party dominated, leading to instability. Boulanger and Dreyfus Affairs posed difficulties too:
- Dreyfus Affair: Dreyfus, A Jewish army captain, was accused by royalists of selling secret documents to Germans. People thought it was anti-Semitism…he was later acquitted and awarded the Legion of Honor; showed that the royalists were bad
- Boulanger Affair: General Boulanger, the Minister of War, tried to overthrow the government unsuccessfully…proved gov could withstand.
Austrian Empire (1848):
- under Emperor Ferdinand I, due to many ethnic minorities à nationalism à revolts
- Kossuth, a Hungarian nationalist, called for ending serfdom and rights for the people
- Ferdinand abdicated and agreed to reforms
- 1849 0 Kossuth heads Hungarian Republic
- it was crushed within the year
- attempts to unify Italy also crushed
Prussia:
- -before 1848, liberals wanted to transform absolutist Prussia into a liberal constitutional government
- -Frederich Wilhelm IV agreed to Constitution and allowed universal suffrage and freedom of the press, but upper class still had power b/c votes were by $
- German states met at the Frankfurt Assembly to discuss how to unify Germany
- some wanted Grossdeutsche (large Germany including Austria) and some wanted Kleindeutsche (small Germany excluding it) à decided to exclude Austria
- -they offered the crown to Wilhelm but he contemptuously refused it and dissolved the assembly, crushing nationalistic hopes of unifying Germany
18th Century Russia and Great Britain:
Russia:
- -Russia was not impacted by revolutions
- -Alexander I was going to make reforms, but after French Revolution, he cracked down and sided with conservatives à absolutist again
- -After Nicolas I came to power, Decembrists led revolt in support of his brother, Constantine because they thought he’d be more liberal
- he crushed the revolt and created the Third Section, the secret police, and implemented absolutism: Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationalism
- Next came Alexander II – during Crimean War:
- -England and France did not want Russia to invade Ottoman Empire and expand, so they helped Ottomans à Russia was defeated in 1856 à realized they had to modernize
- -1861 – Alexander issued Emancipation Act – abolished serfdom, but serfs still had issues because they were indebted to paying off the land. Westerners wanted to westernize, while Slovophiles were against it.
- Alexander II was assassinated in 1881, so Alexander III took over as an absolutist:
- -he industrialized with the Trans-Siberian Railway (5000 miles and nationalistic source of pride for Russia)
- industrially strong with steel but lacked political other reforms
Britain and Democracy:
- in early 1800s, Britain was composed of the House of Lords (nobles and clergy) and the House of Commons. Lords could veto Commons + less than 5% could vote
- in 1819, the Peterloo Massacre occurred à government vs. rebellion
- 1820s – Catholics were tolerated and justice system was restructured
- 1830s – Tories and Whigs fought about representation à The Great Reform Bill of 1832 eliminated Rotten Boroughs for better voting system
- people got more voting rights
- chartist movement wanted rights for city-workers as follows:
o secret ballots
o universal male suffrage
o equal election districts
o elimination of property qualifications for members of Parliament
o annual elections
o salaries for Parliament
- they were rejected in 1848, but all but annual elections were granted by early 1900
- 1867 – Benjamin Disraeli (Prime Minister) got Parliament to double eligible voters thru smaller land qualifications (he wanted voters to outvote the liberals, but the liberals succeeded)
- under William Gladstone, liberals enacted the Reform Bill of 1884 that gave the right to vote for agricultural workers
Unification of Italy and Germany:
Realpolitik – doing whatever possible to achieve means of accomplishing goal
- Congress of Vienna had divided Italy
- Nationalism between 1815-48 came in from of Carbonari, a group dedicated to establish a Republic
- Young Italy Society provoked revolts in 1848
- The pope opposed nationalism, but in Sardinia King Victor Emmanuel II granted liberal constitution in 1848
Nationalists:
- Giuseppe Mazzini – writer and old member of the Carbonari and founder of the Young Italy Society…he wrote The Duties of Man – embodied duty to nationalism and state…expelled in 1848
- Giuseppe Garibaldi – friend of Mazzini…he was the army leader of the Red Shirts that conquered Sicily and supported a Republic
- Cavour:
- Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1852
- he made liberal reforms
- he used international alliances, especially Napoleon III, to unify Italy
- he used war and diplomacy as well
- 1858 – Cavour made an alliance with Napoleon that he would help if Austria attacked Sardinia. He then convinced Austria to attack Sardinia and defeated Austria with Napoleon’s help
- Napoleon then pulled out of the war b/c of criticism and signed the Franco-Austrian agreement that gave Lombardy away
- Cavour got mad, resigned, but came back a year later. Italy and France annex territories
- Garbaldi then conquered the Kingdom of Two Sicilies and Naples w/ his 1000 Red Shirts
- While he was conquering the kingdom, Cavour shrewdly attacked the Papal sates (but not Rome because he didn’t want to upset France)
- Organized plebiscite in conquered territories because he feared Garibaldi’s popularity (diplomacy) but Garibaldi did not oppose him
- 1861 – Unification – King Victor Emmanuel II elected as King of Italy
- new kingdom excluded Venetia and Rome till later
- Lateran Treaty of 1929 recognized Vatican city as its own territory
German Unification:
Bismarck, Iron Chancellor, took over, unified, and strengthened a new Germany:
He used wars and realpolitik to create and unify the empire:
- 1864 – Danish War:
- created an alliance with Austria and defeated and annexed Denmark
- Austria and Prussia disagreed over how to administrate the provinces à 1866 -Austro Prussian War/ Seven Weeks’ War:
- They argued about Schleswig and Holstein, and Bismarck got Austria to declare war.
- Prussia defeated them swiftly in just 7 weeks
- He was lenient with Austria because he knew he would need them to fight France (example of diplomacy)
- 1867 – dissolved German Confederation and formed Northern German Confederation (made up of Reichstag – lower house, and the Bundesrat, the upper house), allowing Austria and 4 provinces to maintain independence
- 1870 – Bismarck altered a telegram to the French king, pretending to insult them, triggering the Franco-Prussian War à Prussia defeated them
- 1871 – Treaty of Frankfurt gave Alsace + Lorraine to Germany and made France pay an indemnity
- German Empire: established with Bismarck as chancellor and Wilhelm I as Kaiser
- Kaiser and Chancellor had real power even though it was a “democracy” (really autocracy)
- Bismarck tried to make church bow to state thru Kulturkampf, but the Catholic Center Party grew stronger so he backed down. Same thing happened with socialism.
- 1888 – Wilhelm II became Kaiser and lifted Divine Right à dismissed Bismarck
Austrian-Hungarian Empire:
- Austria tried suppressing the nationalities etc., weakened its military power…
- Under Francis Joseph I, Austria joined with Hungary in a dual monarchy
- 1867 – called Ausgleich or Compromise of 1867
Ottoman Empire:
- minorities increasingly wanted nationalistic goals of their own states fulfilled
- During 1830s, Empire did Tanzimant, Reorganization, and gave equality to jews, Muslims, and Christians + modernized.
- Muslims under Adulhamid were conservative and didn’t’ like new changes…Abdulhamid suppressed the Armenians
- 1878 – gave independence to Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Romania
- Young Turks overthrew Sultan and created constitutional monarchy…Ottoman empire had died.
Imperialism (1870-1914):
-New Imperialism was different because it was for the benefit of colonial power itself
- Reasons:
Economic:
-industrialized countries needed to expand markets globally to sell more
-wanted to invest more and sell more to natives
- capitalism and industrial revolution had created more $ to spend on foreign colonies
Military/Political Reasons:
- countries wanted them for nationalism
- thought that bigger navy was key
- source of glory for them; indication of greatness
- ex: Britain needed to protect Suez Canal à trade with colonies
Human/Religious/Philosophical reasons:
- Kipling’s “White Man’s Burden” to civilize lower peoples
- Social Darwinism: belief that as superior nations, it was natural for them to conquer the inferior people and therefore justifiable
- People wanted to spread Christianity
New Technology:
- quinine med. (better journeying)
- steamboat and telegraph (communication)
- machine gun (for conquering)
Summation Chart:
| Economic | Military/Political | Religion/Social | Technology |
| Need for markets | Need for military bases | White man’s burden | New medicine |
| Raw materials | National security | Spread of Christianity | New weapons |
| Source of investments | Source of pride | Social Darwinism | transportation |
- -Suez canal shortened route + was an important source of power for Great Britain and France
- Leopold II of Belgium sent Henry Stanley to explore the Congo
- At the Congress of Berlin, Bismarck and Ferry decided that European countries would divide and recognize each other’s colonies.
- -Ethiopia and Liberia were only the African independent colonies
Great Britain:
- -not as much as France, who had the most, but had more populated areas and more resources
- Boers didn’t’ like British and founded two Republics then conquered the Zulus
- 1890 – Cecil Rhodes (diamond guy – very rich) conquered Boers in Boer war
Germany:
- Imperialized late because of unification but took land in eastern and southwestern Africa
Italy:
- couldn’t take Ethiopia
- Portugal:
- -large colonies in Angola and Mozambique
India:
- -after defeating French in Seven Years’ War, British overtook India
- -Through British East India Company, they controlled it
- -British did not respect natives
China:
- -when China tried to stop Britain from importing opium, Britain destroyed them in the Opium War
- -Treaty of Nanking (1842) gave Britain Hong Kong and opened up many ports and made China pay an indemnity
- Open Door Policy: USA respected China
- Great Britain, Russia, and Germany occupied the Middle East
World War I:
