Renaissance

Renaissance

Based in Italy (made up of city states).

Humanism - focus more on this world, not the afterworld. Ancient Rome and Greece = base of morals. Individualism- learning and human affairs should concern the individual.

Key Writers and Philosophers:

Leonard Bruni- studied under Chrysoloras. Translated Greek texts into Latin. Wrote history of Florence in Latin. *Most famous for his admiration of Cicero – the Roman statesman and model of civic virtue.

Lorenzo de Medici- Ruled Florence during its “Golden Age.” Advocates civic humanism, patron of the arts.

Niccolo Machiavelli- The Prince – how to be a good ruler.  Divide church and state, be virtuous, wise, courageous. Considered to be first modern political science.

Petrarch- known as the “Father of Humanism.” Popularized the notion that Italy was undergoing a period of stronger learning and individualism. Worked to revive a more pure form of latin.

Artists:

Donatello – revived free standing sculpture. Sculpted David – “imbued his forms with psychological detail and expression, representing Renaissance naturalism.”

Leonardo Da Vinci – Ideal “Renaissance Man.” Mona Lisa (Manlady), The Last Supper (dinner before crucifixion). A studier of sciences, including anatomy, and engineering. Introduced systematic observation.

Michelangelo- A painter (Last Judgement), a sculptor (Pieta), and architect (St. Peter’s Basilica Dome).

Raphael- School of Athens. Tribute to ancient Greece.

PRINTING PRESS!

Women’s role- stay at home and be a good housewife.

New painting ideas – Oil paintings, Perspective, focus on human body, revolved more around human than G-d, Symmetry and Order, New status (not just a craftsman, an arteeeest!)

Painting ideas apply to the time’s new ideas- FOCUS ON YOURSELF NOT G-d.  

French Revolution

A) Causes:

-Government was corrupt, inefficient, & in debt

-Class structure was archaic and unjust

-Began as an attempt at reform

-Caused by ideas of “liberty, equality, fraternity”

B) Old Regime Class Structure:

-First estate of  clergy and Second estate of nobles were exempt from taxes

-Third estate – rest of 95% of population: middle class, urban artisans, & peasants

          a) Wanted to vote by head but Louis XIV wanted to vote by hierarchy

C) First Stage of Revolution

-National Assembly- Third estate in which each deputy would vote as an individual

-Tennis Court Oath- gathering of National Assembly and swore to not disband until France has a constitution they agree w/ -- determination to get constitutional revolution

-Fall of Bastille- rumor Napoleon will use weaponry to suppress them, starts revolt

          a) Major turning point in rev – people willing to take arms in group against king

          b) King and army crumble à formation of National Guard to restore order

-Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen- explains the freedoms of speech, press and religion, equality in taxation and before law, and national sovereignty of the king

          a)Did not include women- causes further social problems between sexes

- Great Fear- peasants feared aristocratic plot to starve people by burning crops/barns

          a) Peasants attack aristocrats, peasants refused to pay seigniorial dues to their lords

-March of Versailles: women march to force king to move to Tuileries

- Civil Constitution of Clergy- abolished convents/monasteries, made state pay saleries of clergymen, clergy forbidden to accept authority of the pope

-Legislative Assembly- National Assembly drafted constitution in which made the king chief executive officer and established voting qualifications for male citizens

D) Radical Phase:

-King taken prisoner, France becomes a republic

-First Coalition: Austria, England, Netherlands, Prussia, and Spain uniting against France

-Political factions- Jacobins supported by Paris mobs and Girondists supported by peasants in rural areas who fought for control of National Assembly

-Maximilien Robespierre: leader of Jacobins pushed for execution of king Louis XVI

-Committee of Public Safety: launched Reign of Terror

          a) Republic of Virtue- de-Christianize France and alienated Catholic majority

-National Convention executed Robespierre when France turns against Reign of Terror

E) Final Stage:

-Thermidorian Reaction: returned moderate bourgeois to power

-Directory: 5 member executives were established by National Convention to run government. When a Paris mob threatened the new government, Napoleon Bonaparte put down the riot and was rewarded w/ command of French armies fighting Austrians in Italy

Industrial Revolution

 a) During the late eighteenth century, Great Britain led the way in the development of factories and railroads. In the 1830s and 1840s, industrialization began to spread throughout continental Europe, moving from west to east and north to south. Railroad construction was a leading sector of industrialization. Governments backed railroads, realizing that railroad construction with its demand for iron and coal pushed further industrial development. The steam engine that powered the railroads was also used by steamboats, mining operations, and textile factories. Although industrialization increased steadily in western Europe, its advance in eastern Europe was slow, in large part because serfdom still survived there. Serfs could not move to the towns to work in factories, and landlords with large estates had little incentive to invest in manufacturing. Over decades, factories gradually replaced the households of preindustrial artisans. Many peasants continued to alternate seasonally between manufacturing and agriculture. Workers also continued putting-out work, an option especially attractive to women. In time, even the putting-out system changed, due to the division of labor into simpler, lower-paid tasks known as piecework. Factories drew criticism for the pollution they created and for the growing income gap between owners and workers. As industrialism and its consequences grew, local and national governments collected information about workers' health, their living conditions, and their families. Government inquiries often focused on women and children and, in Great Britain, inquires led to the Factory Act of 1833, which outlawed the employment of children under age nine in textile mills and limited the hours of children under age eighteen; and the 1842 Mines Act, which prohibited the employment of women and girls underground. The continental countries eventually followed the British lead, but most did not insist on inspection; enforcement was therefore lax.
b) Urbanization and Its Consequences, pp. 835-839
Industrialization was linked with rapid urban growth. Great Britain was the leader in this case also: by 1850, half the population of England and Wales lived in towns. Urban populations soared all over Europe because of massive rural out-migration. Agricultural improvements had increased the food supply and therefore the rural population. As it grew, farm work became scarce, and people went to the cities in search of employment. As the cities grew, they dismantled their medieval walls and incorporated parks, zoos, cemeteries, and greenways. Housing, however, was neglected, and overcrowding severe. Overcrowding fostered disease as garbage and refuse littered the streets, smog and smoke obscured the atmosphere, and water was scarce and unclean. Without sewage removal, human waste collected in cesspools and ended up in the rivers that supplied drinking water. Cities with populations of fifty thousand or more had twice the death rates of rural areas. From 1830 to 1832, and again from 1847 to 1852, cholera swept through Europe. Epidemics shocked governments into concern for public health and, in Great Britain, reports on sanitary conditions among workers led to new public health laws. Middle-class persons lived in more spacious and cleaner neighborhoods, but the nearby poor were a source of anxiety. Middle-class reformers, pointing to the living conditions of the poor as a cause of moral degeneracy, collected statistics on illegitimacy and infanticide. Reformers also addressed prostitution, alcoholism, and crime. At the same time that they drew attention to public health issues, reformers unfortunately stereotyped workers as helpless and out of control.
c) Agricultural Perils and Prosperity, pp. 839-840
Burgeoning populations created rising demands for food and altered rural life. Peasants and farmers planted fallow land, chopped down forests, and drained marshes. Railroads and canals improved food distribution, but much of Europe remained isolated from markets and thus vulnerable to local famines. Most still lived on the land, and the upper classes still dominated rural society, although businessmen and peasants were sometimes able to buy land. In France, almost two million independent peasants tended their own small properties. But in England, southern Italy, Prussia, and eastern Europe, large landowners expanded their estates. The survival of independent peasant families was threatened as men often migrated seasonally to earn cash in factories while women stayed behind to tend the crops. To avoid further subdivision of their land to potential heirs, peasants practiced rudimentary forms of birth control. Unpropertied individuals in cities began marrying earlier, and they, too, practiced birth control. Rural population pressure also caused people to emigrate, often to the United States. Between 1816 and 1850, five million Europeans left their home countries and traveled overseas. Despite the challenges of rural life in Europe, political power remained in the hands of traditional elites. The biggest property owners controlled political assemblies and often personally selected clergy and local officials. The old rural order seemed most impregnable in Russia, where troops easily suppressed serfs' uprisings in 1831 and 1842.

Napoleon- Charts on domestic and foreign policies

Area	Napoleon’s beliefs
Education	-girls should spend time at home learning religion, manners, and female occupations -Lycee (secondary) schools set up for boys
Politics	-Turns France into an Empire- with himself as permanent First Consul - Bank of France- improve budgets and taxing -Made generals, ministers, prefects, scientists, rich men, and nobles his senators -Makes his family rule Europe- see below -Divorces Josephine, marries Marie-Louis of Austria to produce a male heir
Religion	-Reconcile Catholics into his regime -Concordat with Pope Pius VII- ended state and church conflicts -Catholicism recognized as official religion of a majority of the French population -Catholics criticize Napoleon for attempting to control religion
Scientific/ Intellectual Advancement	-new theoretical and practical scientific work rewarded the state’s efforts -Dominique-Jean Larrey- developed new battlefield amputation and medical care for the wars of Napoleon -Napoleon was unable to tolerate criticism- banishes Madame de Stael, causing her to write Corinne (patriarchal society) and On Germany (new literary currents)
French Revolution	-No executions but refused political oppositions in press, clubs- censorship -Eliminate republic- becomes the First Consul
Social	-Increase building- Arc de Triomphe, Stock Exchange, fountains, slaughterhouses -Legion of Honor- new noble class based off military successes -New work conditions
Military	-Emannuel-Joseph Sieyes, his advisor, explains his military confidence -Reliance on his military advisors- Alexandre Berthier (chief of staff) -Legion of honor of nobles also serves as a crucial component of military success
Judicial	Civil Code- defined property rights, guaranteed religious liberty, and established a uniform system of law providing equal treatment for all males
Views on Women	-Believed in patriarchal dominance, but helped poor women through charities -Wished to restrict women to the private sphere of the home

Domestic Policies- military conquests
1) Spain- Napoleon makes brother Joseph king
-Spain becomes constitutional republic under Napoleon's influence
-Napoleon invades Portugal using Spain's large army
-Consequences- Spanish clergy/nobles raise peasant army to fight French occupiers in a 6 year battle for independence
-Result- Nobles appoint Ferdinand VII, heir to Charles IV as king to preserve the old monarchy from napoleon
2) Italy- Napoleon makes another brother Joseph king, Most unified it has been since HRE
-Napoleon establishes Italy as 3 provinces and later places his stepson as Viceroy of Italy (nickname "King of Rome")
-Reforms- abolishes feudalism, makes other social, political, and economic reforms
-Consequence- Carbonari resistance that will later unify Italy in the 1870's
3) Austria- Napoleon fights against them a lot
-Battles- Battle at Marengo and Hohenlinden, Battle of Ulm, and Battle of Austerlitz against the Third Coalition
-Result- peace terms in Treaty of Tilist, many Austrian soldiers were captured by French, alliance with Russia
4) Prussia- Napoleon makes his brother Jerome king
-Battles- BAttle at Jena and Auerstadt, Battle of Austerlitz 
-Results- Treaty of Tilist- Prussian lands become kingdom of Westphalia, Polish provinces become Duchy of Warsaw
-Frederick William III becomes king- appoints reform commission, which abolishes serfdom, gave more power to army
5) Other Germanic States
-Napoleon abolishes HRE and created Confederation of the Rhine 
-Consequence- revolt against French culture as people wish to become more nationalist
6) Poland- Napoleon creates Duchy of Warsaw from Polish provinces of Prussia
-People love Napoleon for allowing them to make their own culture
7) Russia- rival of Napoleon, part of Third Coalition
-Battle at Friedland, Invasion of 1812- Tsar Alexander I is humiliated is makes treaty with France
-Increased westernization such as more universities, attempt at abolishing serfdom but all reforms fail
-Military technique- burn everything as it retreats to keep French from taking their supplies- downfall of Napoleon's army


Defeat of Napoleon:
-War in Spain for independence- put Ferdinand VII as king and reduces Napoleon's army by 350,000
-Invasion of Russia reduces army from 600,000 to 40,000 because of terrible conditions of the winter
-kicked out and finally reinstated to throne; Napoleon builds up army to fight in Battle of Waterloo (Hundred Days)
-Napoleon is exiled to an island on the coast of Africa

Medieval Times

Churches Mission to Reform:
1. In the thirteenth century, the Church’s reforms were focused on purifying all of society by reshaping the world’s laws in order to paint the image of heaven in God’s eyes. 
• Society would be purified after achieving two amendments, “strengthening institutions of justice to combat heresy and heretics… and support preachers who would bring the official views of the church to the streets” (Hunt 436). 
2. These amendments were good in the eyes of some but to many, it was conflicting their own beliefs. In result, opposing views clashed with the vision of the church. Secondly, throughout the thirteenth century, women were very pious and involved in religion. 
• All women were comfortable in their own ways of preaching. Some sought the quiet life, “others the lives of charity and service… others domestic lives of marriage and family punctuated by religious devotions” (Hunt 442). 
3. Scholasticism is the method of logical inquiry, asking a question, and then exposition, a comprehensive explanation and combining the authority of the church fathers with that of Aristotle. The goal of this method was to summarize and reconcile all knowledge. Thus, many people were accused of placing excessive amounts of emphasis on reason over faith but in conclusion, there is no conflict. 
4. In order to gain support, kings attempted to impose their authority through taxes, courts, and representative institutions. The purpose of these actions is to emphasize the amount of power the king sustains. By using these systems, the king’s authority would have more publicity, and furthermore, it would reach the ears of the public. 
5. Pope Boniface VIII and King Phillip IV were the originators of representative institutions. When the two leaders were at a standoff, the crossroads for the papacy began and the fortifying of the monarchy was initiated. 
• Since the monarchy was being fortified, competition for the position between the two leaders was intense. Propaganda and Popular Opinion was a powerful system that the kings used in order to bash the other contender in order to elevate their own status. 
6. At the times when the non-noble classes, the popolo, fought with the nobles for triumph over the Italian communes, Italian city-states were formed.
• The popolo has much infrastructure and may be considered a kind of alternative commune. The nobles then had no choice but to ally with a certain group and allow lordships to come to light.

AP Euro Enlightenment Recap

Philosophes- usually elite, upper class

A) 5 Main Ideas

-Human ability to analyze the world without any humanistic elements of the past

-Use reason to understand science and natural laws

-Happiness for future in the supernal world as being anti-materialistic

-Human Progress- society is constantly changing    -Freedoms of speech, press, trade, travel, etc.

B) The Philosophes 

-Voltaire- Candide criticizes society; censorship; organized religion created by the people

-Montesquieu- Spirit of the Laws; success in England’s government; checks and balance system

-Diderot- wrote Encyclopedia about all aspects of society in scientific manner

-Smith- capitalism/laissez faire economy without government interference

-Rousseau- Social Contract- Gov. can’t take away rights; social contract that monarch must protect the rights of the people (life, liberty, property), right to rebel; new educational theories

-Condorcet- increased women’s rights, argues for constitutionalism

Political- Enlightened Despots

-Joseph II- abolishes serfdom, gives power of taxation to aristocrats, religious tolerance while limiting the power of the Catholic Church

-Frederick the Great- followed Voltaire, new reforms about education and industry; freed the serfs, religiously tolerant

-Catherine the Great- followed Voltaire and Diderot’ brought French culture to Russia; revised and codified Russian law, yet most Enlightenment reforms failed

-Louis XV- get rid of Jansenists; abolishes Parlement, forced to bring back to gain support

Social/Religious

A) Salons- organized gatherings of women sparking intellectual life outside universities

-Purpose- fought for rights of women and allowed them to argue politics

-EX. Salon of Madame Geoffrin, Mary Wollstonecraft writes Vindication of the Rights of Women

B) Religious-Countries become more religiously tolerant- ex. Austria and Prussia

-France- Louis XV bans Jansenists through papal bull

C) Social classes- France’s Parlement (nobles gaining power) and abolishing serfdom in Europe

Military- Wars of Enlightenment

1) War of the Spanish Succession

-Cause- Charles II of Spain makes nephew (Phillip III) heir while also being heir to France

-Countries fight to balance power

-Treaty of Utrecht (1713)- France and Spain stay separate, other land acquisitions

2) War of Austrian Succession

-Cause- Maria Therese becomes chosen heiress

-Pragmatic Sanction of 1713- allows women to take throne in Habsburg lands

-Frederick of Prussia invades, takes power, takes over Silesia, Austria

-Peace of Aix-La-Chapelle (1748)- Maria Theresa now queen, husband Francis becomes HRE

AP Euro Scientific Revolution Recap

Causes- printing press, rivalries among city-states, reformation, and humanism

Astronomy

-Ptolemy- geocentricism and circular orbits (just like what the Church believed)

-Copernicus- earth revolves around sun (heliocentricism), circular orbits

-Brahe- planets around sun, sun and moon around the earth; observed stars and comet

-Kepler- heliocentricism with elliptical orbits

-Galileo- telescope to view solar system

Other Sciences

-Galen- physician, wrote On the Construction of the Human Body, dissected human body for medical knowledge

-Paracelsus- experimented with new drugs, founded pharmacology

-Harvey- blood circulation, used rational deduction

-Newton- Principia applied laws of movements to planetary motion and summarized his mathematical and mechanical discoveries; founds calculus

Philosophy- sought to break with past tradition

-Francis Bacon (France)- scientific method, used math and mechanics to understand nature and use nature to elaborate on scientific knowledge (less reliance on tradition)

-Descartes- “I think, therefore I am”- used deductive reasoning to understand the universe, broke with tradition (past is taking over the present) through writing in French, not Latin

Religious

-Copernicus bases his theories off bible, dedicated his work to Pope Paul III

-Catholic Church condemns work of Galileo and Pope Urban VIII puts him in house arrest

-Papal Inquisition executes Giordano Bruno in 1600 for heresies about a dual-universe

-Many of the scientists were religious- ex. Newton

-Jansenists- Catholic faction believing in total sinfulness of mankind and need for salvation

Society- classes

-All social classes appreciated new sciences

Politically- constant rivalry among nation-states that increased scientific development

-Political theories of Hobbes and Locke

Hobbes	Locke
-Power of state is needed to control society -Absolute rulership to control society -Power comes from social contract, not divine right -Social Contract- ruler can do whatever they want, people have no rights, can’t rebel	-Man born free, Gov. must organize society -Social Contract- man has inalienable rights of life, liberty, and property and can rebel if they are taken away -Opposed forcing Catholicism on people -Tabula Rasa- man is born innocent